SCHOOL HYGIENE 



-BY — 



Charles J. Lundy, A, M., M. D., 



PROFESSOR OF DISEASES OF 



THE EYE, EAR AND THROAT 



MICHIGAN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, 



DETROIT. 



Read Before American Health Association. 
1883. 



DETROIT: 
r^HA"?. M. Rousseau, Pkinter, 50 LAK^ED St. West. 



BCHOOL HYGIENE 



— BY — 



Charles J, Lundy, A, M., M. D., 



PROFESSOR OF DISEASES OF 



THE EYE, EAR AND THROAT 



IN THE 



MICHIGAN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, 
DETROIT. 



i^o„.:wf.v..a.vb"ii 



Read Before American Health Association, 
1883. 



\> 



3^ 



0« 



COPYRIGHTED 10 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 



Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: — In a short paper on school 
hygiene it would not be appropriate to discuss the system of educa- 
tion pursued in our public schools ; and I trust that my remarks will 
in no way be construed as a criticism of that system. It may be ne- 
cessary, however, to point out some of the ill effects incident to the 
pursuit of studies under that system. To do this, and to suggest 
remedies for these ill effects, in so far as I am able, will be the object 
of this paper. 

I believe it will be admitted by a majority of careful observers that 
the course of study pursued in most public schools, and also in many 
acadamies and seminaries, embraces too many subjects. This neces- 
sitates too many hours of study and recitation at school, and also re- 
quires the pupil to spend much time in study at home. For the ave- 
rage pupil, the hours required for preparation and recitation are en- 
tirely too long. Eight, ten, and in some cases even twelve hours per 
day are devoted to study and recitation. For example: Miss L., 
who is now under my care for an affection of the eye^ recites six 
times a day, and each recitation occupies forty-five minutes. She is 
expected to study, and does study, five hours at home every day, in 
addition to which she studies music. She is a bright, intelligent 
young girl, and learns easily, but she complains that her work is too 
hard. Need I add that she is nervous ? No, it is not necessary, for 
it would be remarkable if she were not. Some time since the ques- 
tion of overwork in the schools was discussed in New York, and dur- 
ing that discussion some startling facts were brought to light. It was 
shown that many pupils in the higher grades and in the grammar 
schools spent from ten to thirteen hours per day in study and reci- 
tation. This was the case even in the ordinary every day work of the 
school, but at certain periods matters were much worse. In most, if 
not in all, schools and academies there is pursued at times a system 
of study commonly known as the cramming system. During certain 
portions of each month, or each quarter, or each semester, as the case 

* A paper read before the American Public Health Association, November, 1883. 



may be, the pupils are urged, if not actually forced, to make extensive 
reviews of subjects hurriedly gone over and imperfectly learned some 
weeks or months before. This cramming process is occasionally 
kept up for several weeks at a time, to the end that the pupils may 
pass well in their examinations. There is excited a sharp rivalry 
among the pupils, and this rivalry is often unwisely encouraged by the 
teachers, for the teacher is anxious to show the school superintendent 
or the school board how rapidly pupils advance under his or her care. 
This is a pernicious practice, and cannot be too strongly condemned. 
It subjects the pupil to unnatural mental strain, and the result is what 
might be expected. Why do so many pupils drop out of the classes 
and leave school at the end of one, two or three months after tne be- 
ginning of the school year ? It was shown in the New York schools 
that the average attendance was less than fifty per cent, of the num- 
ber of pupils enrolled. It was estimated that three-fourths of the ab- 
senteeism was due to sickness. Of course much of that sickness was, 
in a measure, unavoidable, or at least was not due to school work. 
But that much of this sickness and absenteeism were due to cramming 
and overwork there can be no reasonable doubt. The experience of 
every physician will bear testimony to the correctness of this statement. 
Indeed, the timely interference of the physician in advising weak, 
delicate pupils to leave school often averts the impending danger of 
prostration from overwork. Need I say that nervous excitability, with 
ultimate prostration, headache, impaired digestion, lack of proper 
physical development and myopia are among the many bad results of 
exciting competition and the long hours of study, especially when 
much of the pupil's time is spent in badly lighted and badly ventilated 
school rooms. 

The importance of thorough ventilation of schools cannot be over- 
estimated. With a large number of pupils in a single room, the at- 
mosphere soon becomes contaminated by exhalations from lungs and 
skin. In many schools the lack of proper ventilation is painfully 
manifest, especially in winter months, I venture the assertion, and 
without fear of successful refutation, that not one in three of all the 
school buildings in this great State of Michigan is properly lighted 
and properly ventilated. This, too, in a State that is a most liberal 
patron of education — a State noted among all States as having a su- 
perior educational system. And what is true of Michigan schools is 
true of the schools in other States. 



It seems a little surprising that with our health boards in almost 
every town that such a condition is permitted to exist. Were the 
masses of the people sufficiently educated to appreciate the import- 
ance of good ventilation in the school-room, they would not tolerate 
some things which now exist. I venture to assert that the next gene- 
ration will not submit to the things which we now tolerate in this 
regard. 

Just where to place the blame for the defects in ventilation of 
schools I am not prepargd to state. I thnik, however, that it would 
be advisable to substitute for the law making attendance at school 
obligatory, one which would compel members of school boards and the 
architects who plan our school buildings to pass creditable exami- 
nations in sanitary science. 

To compensate for the lack of proper ventilation teachers some- 
times resort to opening the windows of the school-room to admit 
fresh air. It will at once be seen that this remedy is as bad as the de- 
fect it is intended to correct. A draft of cold air is allowed to blow 
directly upon the pupils who sit in close proximity to the window, the 
body is suddenly chilled, and a cold is the result. When the body is 
at rest the surface is easily chilled, and under such circumstances the 
pupil catches cold (in the ordinary acceptance of the term) from com- 
paratively slight causes. Repetitions of these colds lead to chronic 
catarrhal affections of the nose, throat and ears. In this connection 
I may say that in many cases the temperature of the room becomes 
too high, owing to imperfect ventilation. In the majority of school- 
rooms the temperature ranges from 70 to 76 "^ , or even 78 ° , whereas 
it should not be more than 68 or 7o '^ . In Europe a temperature for 
school-rooms of 68 ° is thought quite high, and a much lower tem- 
perature usually prevails. The warm atmosphere is injurious and un 
healthful, and relaxes and debilitates the system. When pupils leave 
a warm, dry atmosphere with pores open and system relaxed and go 
directly out into the damp, frosty air of a mid-winter day, they are 
very liable to suffer in consequence. This it may be impossible to 
entirely avoid, but if the temperature of a room is 68 or 70 ° and the 
atmosphere is pure the system is not so likely to be relaxed as it 
would be by an impure atmosphere of 76 or 78 ° , and every careful 
observer knows that when the system is relaxed is a time of great dan- 
ger from sudden exposure to a cold atmosphere. 

Seats and Desks. — The construction and arrangement of seats and 
desks are worthy at least a passing notice. Although the American 



' 6 

schools are generally provided with better seats and desks than are the 
schools of most European countries, yet there is room for improve- 
ment even here. If seats and desks are faulty^in their construction, 
or if they are not properly suited to the size of the pupil, they tend 
to produce deformity. 

It is not necessary to discuss here the subject of deformities in gen- 
eral, or the ease with which deformity may be produced in the young 
and growing child. The facts are that a vast majority of deformities 
occur during the school age. Eulenburg, the noted orthopaedic sur- 
geon, states that 90 per cent, of all cases of spinal curvature not due 
to special disease occur during school life. In Switzerland, according 
to Liebrich, 20 per cent, of all schoolboys and 40 per cent, of all 
schoolgirls have one shoulder higher than the other. 

Dr. D. H. Agnew, the well known Philadelphia author and sur-- 
geon, gives as the principal causes of spinal curvature, " unequal exer- 
cise of muscular power on both sides of the spine " and "occupations." 
The same author further states : " I am disposed to think \\i?A partial 
or unequal use of the musailar system is most commonly concerned in 
developing lateral curvature of the spine." It is not necessary to 
discuss here, even did time and space permit, how faulty and unnatural 
positionsof the body may give rise to deformity, 01 the modus operandi 
by which the deformity is produced. 

Although it is very probable that a comparatively small number of 
deformities occur in this country as a result of badly ccnstructed and 
badly arranged seats and desks, yet we cannot afford to disregard this 
matter. Unless we would have our children less beautiful in form 
and figure than Nature intended them to be, we should not allow 
them to spend several hours day after day, year in and year out, in 
seats and before desks not pjoperly adapted to them. Different pupils 
of the same age will attain different degrees of advancement, and the 
higher the grade the larger the seat and the higher the desk. Then 
again, pupils of the same grade will differ greatly as to height of body 
and length of limb. Thus it will be seen that the proper seating of 
the pupils in the school-room is no easy matter. 

The seat should be so constructed as to support nearly the whole 
length of the thigh, as well as the pelvis. The seat should be of such 
a height as to permit the sole of the shoe to rest comfortably upon 
the floor. I have observed many instances in which the feet hung 
suspended between the seat and the floor because the seat was too 
high. 



Every seat should have a back, either straight or but slightly 
curved, and sufficiently high to support the lower half of the spinal 
column. This latter will help to prevent undue strain upon those 
muscles whose function it is to keep the trunk erect, and at the same 
time it will not interfere with the respiratory function. 

The proper adaptation of desks is even a more difficult matter than 
the arrangement of seats. If the desk is too high the pupil is obliged 
to elevate the shoulders unnaturally in order to rest the elbow and 
forearm upon the desk. Such positions are apt to produce the de- 
formity found among 40 per cent, of the girls in the schools of 
Switz;erland. In other words, it is apt to make one shoulder higher 
than the other. If the desk is too low the pupil will lean over it or 
upon it. This stooping position is a bad one on several accounts. It 
makes the pupil round shouldered, prevents the proper expansion of 
the chest in respiration, retards the flow of blood from the head, face 
and eyes, and favors the development of myopia. Liebrich says the 
desk should be high enough to enable the pupil to rest the forearm 
and elbow thereon without displacing the shoulder. He also advo- 
cates having the edge of the desk in a line perpendicular to the front 
of the seat. This general plan will be found to work quite well ; and 
it insures a correct position for the body, and one in which there will 
be no unnatural elevation of the shoulders, and no necessity for bend- 
ing the head over the desk. 

For various reasons the top of the desk should have a slight incline 
or slope, instead of being flat. Everyone may observe how quickly 
the eyes tire in looking for any considerable time at objects placed 
much above a line horizontal to the eye. One may also observe that 
the eyes tire quite easily in looking at an object if it be placed too far 
below the horizontal. As we walk in the street our gaze naturally 
strikes the walk twenty or thirty feet m front of us. This is accounted 
for by the fact that the ocular muscles easily adjust normal eyes for 
binocular single vision at this point. Without taking time to explain 
the action of these ocular muscles, I will briefly say that, within cer- 
tain limits, both eyes can be directed more easily to an object below 
the horizontal line than to an object above it. If, however, the object 
is too far below the horizontal line it strains the eye to look at it for 
any length of time. If a book be placed upon a flat surface either the 
head must be bent unnaturally forward to see distinctly or the eyes 
must be turned too far downward to be used with comfort. Besides, 



8 

letters which can be seen distinctly at a long distance when the book 
rests at an angle of forty or forty-five degrees, cannot be seen at all at 
such distance where the book rests upon a flat surface. Of this fact 
any one may be convinced by making the experiment. This will in 
great part be accounted for by the fact that the letters are " foreshort- 
ened," and that their retinal images are smaller than they naturally 
should be. 

On account of mechanical considerations the angle of 40 or 45 ° 
will be found too great when the desk is used for writing, and one of 
20 ^ will answer better. Therefore, every school desk should be pro- 
vided with an adjustable top so that it may be used either for reading 
or writing with comfort and convenience. 

Light. — Light in the public schools has received considerable at- 
tention within the past few years, and deservedly so, for it is an im- 
portant subject. 

Light may be deficient in quantity, poor in quality, or it may come 
from the wrong direction. That such defects in the lighting of our 
schools do actually exist may be demonstrated by examination in al- 
most any part of the country. That a few — very few, indeed — of the 
more recently erected school buildings are well lighted is a fact, but 
unfortunately the well lighted buildings do not exceed one in five of 
the whole number. When light is deficient the retinal images are not 
clearly and well defined. The pupil tries to obviate the difficulties in 
two ways. First, he increases the amount of light reflected from the 
book to the eye by bringing the book closer. It is not necessary here 
to speak of the well known law that the reflection of light is in in- 
verse ratio to the square of the distance of the object. Second, he 
tries to increase the size of the retinal images of the letters by bring- 
ing the book nearer than twelve inches. The nearer the object the 
more divergent will be the rays of light reflected from it to the eye. 
The more divergent the rays of light the greater will be the eff'ort re- 
quired to focus them upon the retina, and the greater will be the 
strain upon the internal recti and upon the ciliary muscle. But the 
pupil further adds to the danger by stooping over and bringing the 
eye nearer the book, instead of maintaining the erect position and 
bringing the book towards the eye. The result of this stooping, un- 
natural position is, congestion of the head, face and eyes by interfer- 
ence with the return of blood from these parts. The strain upon the 
eyes causes them to grow weary and ache if the work is continued. 



9 

Indeed, we see many cases of inflammation of the eyes, and also of 
congestion of the optic nerve and retina, from this cause. Were this 
the appropriate place many examples could be cited. 

We also see many cases of headache and great nervous disturbance 
due to an unnatural strain upon the eyes, the prime cause of which 
was bad and insufficient light. But, while we see numerous examples 
of pain and discomfort of the eyes, and even of inflammation of the 
eyes, due to badly lighted school and living rooms, yet these are only 
the lesser evils. There is another affection much more important 
than these, in the production of which bad light, together with long 
hours of study, plays an important role. That affection is myopia, 
and to that I shall now call your attention, for in point of import- 
ance it is second to no subject connected with school hygiene. 

Myopia, or near sight, indicates that condition of refraction in 
which parallel rays of light are not fotused upon the retina but in front 
of it when the eye is at rest. This is due to an elongated condition 
of the eyeball, and such eyes do not see distant objects distinctly, the 
far point being within finite distance. 

The oculist regards such an eye as being something more than near 
sighted, for he knows that more than four-fifths of the myopic eyes 
are diseased. With myopia he associates certain conditions upon 
which it depends. With myopia he also associates certain anatomical 
and pathological changes which have taken place within the eye. He 
is aware of the fact that progress in these pathological changes means 
an increase of the myopia. He is also aware that the disease may 
reach a dangerous degree, and that, in some instances, there occurs 
total loss of sight. Finally, he is aware of the fact that this disease 
can, in a great measure, be prevented, but that it cannot be cured. 

The causes of myopia are both predisposing and exciting. It is a 
well known fact that children frequently inherit certain pecularities of 
shape, form and feature. I have observed certain pecularities of shape 
in \he eyeball in three consecutive generations, and in all three gen- 
erations these peculiarties led to the development of squint. 
Although children do inherit a predisposition to myopia, yet few, if 
any, children are near sighted at birth. In Germany there are more 
myopic people than in any other country, and the children born of 
German parents in this country show a greater predisposition to 
myopia than do the children of American and Irish parents. The pro- 
portion of myopic pupils found by Drs. Loring and Derby in the New 



10 

York schools was, among German pupils 24 per cent.; among Irish 
pupils 14 per cent., and among American. pupils 19 per cent. 

Chief among the exciting causes of myopia are close application to 
study in early youth while the tissues are lax and infirm ; long hours 
of study without proper periods of rest, and poor light, both in quan- 
tity and quality. Other causes are congestion of head, face and eyes, 
caused by the stooping position, or by tight clothing, or by cold feet; 
badly printed books, and books in which the print is too small; badly 
ventilated school and living rooms; debilitating influences of whatever 
nature, and lack of proper physical exercise in the open air. 

Very nq,turally the same causes will operate more seriously under 
certain circumstances tl^n under others. The causes, which would 
produce very bad results among children residing in large cities, 
would not be likely to produce such serious results among children in 
small villages and country places. Indeed I think many of the city 
schools are superior in their appointments to the schools of small 
towns and country districts, and yet the proportion of near sighted 
pupils is always greater in the city than in the country. This has been 
shown in regard to German pupils, and undoubtedly similar condi- 
tions exist in this country. 

Let us briefly examine the arguments bearing upon the develop- 
ment of myopia in the schools, and the influence of modern school 
life upon this disease. Some statistics upon this point may serve our 
purpose. These statistics have been prepared by able investigators 
both in this country and in Europe, and the results of the investi- 
gations show a remarkable similarity. 

Dr. Cohn, of Breslau, Germany, found only 1.4 per cent, of myopic 
pupils in the village schools, while among pupils of the same age in 
the city schools the per cent, of myopia was seven times as high. 
The per cent, of myopia increased year by year, until in the thir- 
teenth and fourteenth years of school life almost two-thirds pt 
the pupils were myopic. 

Dr. Conrad, of Koenigsburg, found that myopia increased from 
less than one-half of i per cent, at 7 years — the first school year — to 
more than 62 per cent, in the highest classes. 

Dr. Erisman, of St. Petersburg, found myopia to increase from 13 
per cent, in the preparatory class to 41 per cent, in the fifth class. 

Pfluger found in the schools of Lucerne a condition almost identi- 
cal with that at Koenigsburg. 



11 

In thf gymnasia at Vienna, Reuss found almost 60 per cent, ot 
myopic students in the higher classes. Had not many students been 
compelled to discontinue their studies on account of the condition of 
their eyes, the per cent, of myopic students in the highest classes of 
the gymnasia would undoubtedly have been larger. 

By these and other observers in Europe tens of thousands ot pupils 
have been examined, and the results have been practically the same. 
In this country a large number of observations have also been made* 
and the results go to show a similar condition here. While the in- 
crease of myopia from year to year has not been so marked as in Ger- 
man schools, yet it is sufficiently great to arrest our attention. These 
observations show a steady increase in the number of myopic pupils 
through the primary and grammar schools, and through high school 
and college. 

In the public schools of New York Drs. Loring and Derby found that 
3^ per cent, of the youngest pupils were myopic, while among the oldest 
pupils — those of 20 to 21 years — the per cent, of myopes had reached 
26.78. Examinations made in the New York College, under the di- 
rection of Dr. C. R. Agnew, showed that 53 per cent, of the junior 
students were myopic. Investigations made elsewhere, for example, 
by Prout and Mathewson, of Brooklyn; by Ayers and Williams, of 
Cincinnati; by Risley, of Philadelphia; by myself in this city, and by 
others at various other points, show similar results. If the proportion 
of myopic pupils is a little greater at one point than at another, the 
difference is only trifling. 

It has been further shown that myopia was most prevalent in pupils 
who spent the greatest number of hours in study. Erisman furnishes 
the following statistics : Of 4,358 pupils examined by him, all studied 
two hours out of school; some studied four hours, some studied six 
hours, and some studied more than six hours out of School. Of those 
who studied only two hours out of school, 1 7 per cent, were myopic; 
of those who studied four hours, 29 per cent., and of those who 
studied six hours and over, more than 40 per cent, were myopic. 

Admitting that myopia is produced by attendance at school and by 
the conditions which such attendance imposes, is there anything to 
show that myopia does not prevail among children who are not sub- 
subject to the conditions imposed by modern school life ? There is. 
Dr. Macnamara, formerly professor in the Calcutta Medical College, 
states that myopia is almost unknown among the lower classes of 



12 

India. He informs us that in his examinations of the Abori^es ot 
Bengal he failed to find a single case of myopia. The same author 
states that " whole races in India appear to be actual strangers to the 
disease." Among the colored race in this country myopia is as yet 
quite rare. 

In England, where myopia is not nearly so prevalent as it is in 
Germany, the disease is found mainly among the better educated 
classes. 

How, then, do long hours of study, poor light, bad ventilation and 
other influences bring about the elongation of the eyeball, upon 
which myopia depends ? This is a pertinent question, and one I 
shall now attempt to answer. It is a well established fact that vigor- 
ous use of any part of the human economy causes an increased flow 
of blood to that part. To this general rule the eye forms no excep- 
tion. During close application to study the eyes receive a greater 
supply of blood than when the eye is at rest. If the application is 
long continued, and without proper periods of rest, the fluid contents 
of the eye become slightly increased, the coats of the eye become 
somewhat congested, and a slight increase in the tension of the eye- 
ball is apt to occur. Now, it is not difficult to see that repeated, 
though slight, increase of tension may lead to stretching of the coats 
of the eyeball. Repeated distension of the stomach, as we often see 
in the case of gonmandizers, leads to stretching of its walls and 
increase in its size. This is also true of other organs similarly 
formed. But there are other factors at work in the production of 
myopia. The muscles which turn the eyes in various directions and 
especially the musclds which converge the visual axes, exert consider- 
able pressure upon the eye-ball from without. To this may also be 
added pressure from contraction of the ciliary muscle in efforts of 
accommodation. Now, as you will observe upon the model which I 
here show you, the recti muscles are attached in front of the equator 
of the eye, and the ciliary muscle is also near the front of the ball. 
When these muscles contract upon the eye-ball, it would be natural 
to suppose the globe would yield, if at all, at the point of least resis- 
tance. This is precisely what occurs. The tunics of the eye do 
yield at the point of least resistance, and we find in myopic eyes, 
especially when the myopia is of a high degree, a bulging of the 
eye backward at its posterior pole. This is shown in the dia- 
gram. But why do myopia and elongation of the eyeball occur so 



13 

rarely among aduhs, many of whom use their eyes for near work for 
ten or even twelve hours a day ? We have seen that nine out of ten 
of the bodily deformities occur in early life, when the tissues are lax 
and infirm, and when shape and form yield readily to bad influences. 
So it is with myopia ; it occurs usually when the tissues have not yet 
hardened sufficiently to resist the evil influences of which I have 
spoken. 

Physical Culture. — While it is not my intention to devote any 
considerable space to the subject of physical culture among school 
children, yet a few words upon so important a matter would not be 
out of place in this connection. 

Dr. Brayton Ball says that "health may be described as that 
condition in which the various functional activities of the body are 
carried on with their normal energy and in a harmonious manner. 
For maintenance of such condition of the vital powers, a certain 
amount of physical exercise is indispensable, since the functions of 
respiration and of the circulation of the blood, which largely control 
the assimilative and dissassimilative processes of the body, are direct- 
ly and powerfully influenced by the activity or inactivity of the mus- 
cular system. " 

Any one who will carefully observe the physical appearances of our 
school children will be convinced that the " functional activities" of 
their bodies are neither carried on with harmony nor with energy. 
The listless air, the languid gait, the cold feet and hands and the lack 
of muscular development, especially among girls, at once indicate the 
lack of physical training. One very frequent result of this lack of 
physical strength is asthenopia or weakness of tho eye muscles. This 
condition is notoriously frequent among young people attending 
school and college^ Nearly one-half the patients who come to con- 
sult me regarding this affection are school children, and of these two- 
thirds are girls. If I ask one of these young girls how long she can walk 
without becoming fatigued the reply is, 20 or 30 or 40 minutes, as the 
case may be. Now, such pupils are expected to spend fi^om six to 
ten hours in study and recitation, but half or three-quarters of an 
hour's physical exercise completely exhausts them. Instead of being 
exhausted by such trifling physical exertion, pupils should be able to 
perform light physical labor for as many hours as they usually spend 
in study. If we desire to hav^ and to preserve the highest type of 
manhood and of womanhood in this country, we must cultivate ou 



14 

children physically as well as mentally. In the current number of 
Harper's Magazine there is an article entitled, "Our Children's 
Bodies," which I most heartily endorse. I would commend every 
one to read it carefully. Especially would I recommend it to those 
engaged in the noble occupation of teaching. 

Every one knows how a little " outing," as it is often called, or a 
few weeks spent in hunting, fishing or other out-door occupation 
helps to recuperate the exhausted energies of the over-taxed business 
or professional man or the accountant. Examples of this are so numer- 
ous that it seems idle to speak of it. Yet, we seldom think that 
physical exercise is necessary for our children who spend so many 
hours a day engaged in mental labor, at least, we provide no means 
for their taking this exercise in a proper manner. If it is necessary 
for the adult to take physical exercise in order that the vital functions 
may be well performed, how much greater the necessity for such exer- 
cise in the growing child. If we wish our children to attain the 
highest type of development, we must see to it that the physical is not 
entirely neglected for the sake of the purely mental culture. A child 
whose mental cultivation has been made at the expense of health and 
physical strength is like a house built upon a quicksand. I have al- 
ready expressed these sentiments so often that they may seem stale ; 
but a good maxim, '^ Let the physical keep pace with the mental 
training," will bear repetition. How shall we provide for the physical 
cultivation of our school children ! This is a question which will 
force itself upon the attention of our educators at no distant day. If 
I were to suggest a plan by which we could attain this object, it would 
be about as follows : In every city let the school board appoint a 
teacher of physical culture. Let him be a man of sound mental 
training, not merely a man who has a large biceps or an expansive 
chest. Let him be thoroughly posted in the anatomy and physiology 
of the human body. Let him understand thoroughly the effect of 
physical training, and the advantages to be derived from such training 
when properly carried out. But, above all, let him be a man who 
thoroughly understands the dapger of improper use of the muscles 
and of severe muscular strain, for hundreds are injured permanently 
by indiscretion in this regard. In a word, let him be a man who 
will teach the use ot the muscles, not the abuse of them. We do not 
wish our children to become gymnasts nor acrobats, wc simply wish to 
develop them physically as well as mentally, for by a harmonious 
blending of the mental and the physical we will obtain the highest 



16 

type of manhood and of womanhood. Now, if a teacher of physical 
culture were to be employed as are teachers of penmanship, music 
and drawing, he could accomplish wonders. Under his general 
direction the several teachers could carry out the details of a general 
plan of physical training. A certain period of time each day, or 
better, a shorter space of time twice a day might be devoted to 
physical training. This time could be very advantageously taken 
from the hours of recitation and one study could be discontinued. 
This plan would not entail any additional duty on the already over- 
worked teachers. What the nature of the physical exercise or drill 
should be, it is not necessary to intimate here beyond that it should 
be light and simple, and such as would bring into play all the muscles 
of the body. 

Although I fear my paper's length has already outrun your 
patience, yet I would beg your indulgence while I suggest a few reme- 
dies for the defects to which your attention has been called. In regard 
to overwork in the schools, I would suggest a reduction in the number 
of studies, some of which might well be dispensed with. Of some 
of the subjects taught, only the merest smattering is retained, and it 
were better to have fewer subjects and have those thoroughly under- 
stood. By discontinuing one subject, the forty miuutes required for 
the recitation could be devoted to out -door exercise or to physical 
culture, which would be a great relief to the already over-taxed ner- 
vous system. The reduction in the number of studies would also re- 
lieve the necessity for so much study at home. By thus lessening the 
mental labor, and by cultivating a taste for physical exercise, it would 
soon be an easy task to cultivate muscle as well as brain. 

If we desire to have pure air in the school -room we must supply the 
means for removal of the foul air, as well as for the ingress of fresh 
air. Most authorities place the amount of fresh air required to keep 
the atmosphere of the school-room at a healthy standard at 2,000 to 
2,500 cubic feet^per hour for each pupil. This air should be warmed 
before distribution to the different parts of the room. To remove a 
like quantity of foul air would require a ventilating capacity much 
greater than I have anywhere observed. To correct the existing de- 
fects, I would suggest the procuring of facitities for heating and dis- 
tributing a much larger quantitiy of fresh air than is now admitted, 
and the introduction of well-heated ventilating flues where none now 
exist, and also an increase in the size or number of such flues 
in the rooms already partially supplied in this respect. 



16 

If we wish to avoid the ill effects of poor light, which ive found was 
an important factor in producing myopia, we should see to it that our 
schools are better lighted. Light should not come from the back, for 
a shadow will be cast upon the book or paper by the pupil's head and 
body. Light should not come from the front, for it irritates the 
eyes. In nearly all school? black-boards are placed between windows, 
thiit, compelling pupils to face the light for a portion of the time. In 
very wide rooms it is impossible to light all parts of the room properly 
if the windows are on one side. Light should be abundant; it should 
be distributed to all parts of the room, and it should come from a 
proper direction. 

The proportion of window space should equal 30 to 50 per cent, 
of the floor space. In many schools the window space does not ex- 
ceed 5 per cent, of the floor surface. Sunlight should not be allowed 
to fall directly on the paper, for it will irritate the eye. 

The school-room should be oblong, and not wider than a space 
equal to twice the height of the window. Such a room can be pro- 
perly lighted from one side, which should be the left. For wider 
rooms the windows must be placed on both sides. 

In conclusion, let me suggest the following rules, observance of 
which will materially help to remedy existing defects : 

1. Avoid the cramming process in education, and the nervous ex- 
citement due to the spirit of rivalry. 

2. Reduce the number of subjects in the curriculum, and shorten 
the periods of study. 

3. Ventilate the school -rooms in accordance with the most ap- 
proved methods, 

4. Regulate the temperature of the school-room — an atmosphere 
which is too warm debilitates the system. 

5. Provide properly constructed and arranged seats and desks. 

6. Instruct pupils to sit erect, and to hold the book or paper at least 
12 inches from the eye. 

7. Provide highly myopic pupils with proper spectacles, which will 
enable them to read at the natural distance of 1 2 inches. 

8. Furnish pupils with well printed books. 

9. Furn'sh abundance of light, without producing glare. Let it 
come from the left side if the room is narrow, from both sides if the 
room is wide. 

10. Provide for the physical education of school children, and 
teach them the importance of of out-door exercise. 



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